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It has already been stated that each mineral has a definite refractive index by which it can be identified on the refractometer; list of these indices will be found on p. 27, and at the of the post. for the benefit of those who like to have at least a rough idea of the working of an 

instrument which they are using, a short description of the basic principle upon which all gem-tasting refractometer depend followers. however, those, who would like to know how to use a refractometer, but who prefer to shirk such explanation, can skip the next section and await the strictly practical directions which will be given later, on p.21. what followers can best be understood by considering the diagram, figure 2.2. here rays of light are considered passing from a dense medium into a rarer one, say from glass into air. the rays will then be refracted away

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As would appear in a singly refractive stone such as diamond, each edge appears as a double line (see figure 3.1). a word of warning, however, should be uttered here; according to their crystal structure, all doubly refracting stones have either one or two direction in which only single refraction obtains. those gemstones belonging to the tetragonal, trigonal or hexagonal system of crystals have only such direction; one 'optic axis' as it called. these minerals, which are grouped together optically us 'uniaxal', include zircon, 

corundum (ruby and sapphire), beryl (emerald and aquamarine), tourmaline, and quartz (amethyst and citrine). the minerals crystallising in either the orthorhombic, monoclinic or triclinic systems have two optic axes, and are called 'biaxial'. these include peridot, chrysoberal (alexandrite), topaz, and spodumene (kunzite) among the coommoner gemstones

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REFRACTIVE INDEX AND ITS MEASUREMENT

This deviation of rays of light on entering a new medium is called refraction. In figure 2.1 the rays of light, I.O, is refracted along OR  on entering the denser medium blow the surface PQ. The broken line show the path of  followed by the reflacted light. The 

extent of the bending of refraction of light on entering the stone depends upon its refracting power or 'refractive index', and this is inversely proportional to the velocity of light withing the substance. Put differently, the refractive index of a medium may be define as the velocity of light in air* divided by the velocity of light in the medium. The velocity of light in air approximately I86,000 miles per second, and light from the sun and stars travel to us at this immense speed. In quartz (rock, crystal, amethyst, etc) the velocity is reduced to approximately I20,000 and its diamond to only 76,860 miles per second. Thus diamond, in which light travels as mentioned above, at 76,860 miles per second in empty space, has a refractive index of I86,000\76,860=2.042; higher then the refractive index of any other gemstones used in

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16.REFRACTIVE INDEX AND ITS MEASUREMENT
(The Dialdex Refractometer)

In 1972 Rayner succeeded in producing a refractometer of quite a new type although it acts upon the same principles as all others. in place of the customary scale of the conventional refractometer, the user (having placed the usual small drop of contact liquid and the stone to be tested on the table of the instrument) sees through the eyepiece a blank 

screen crossed with the faint shadow edge or shadow edge due to the stone. the position of which will depend, as usual, on the refractive index or indices of the stone. by the turning the calibrated dial at the side of the instrument a black ribbon-like marker can be adjusted to coincide with each shadow-edge. the corresponding refractive index can than be read very easily from the dial hence the name 'dialdex'. reading accurate to one or two units in the third decimals place can be assured on this instrument rather more

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16. DOUBLE REFRACTION AND DISPERSION

hemisphere, but the principle of the instrument is exactly the same. the prism form was originally evolved to allow isotropic minerals to be use in glass. special anderson-payne models incorporating synthetic spinal, blend, and diamond have been made which have 

certain advantages as well as certain limitations compared with standard refractometers. in rayne refractometers the scale extends from 1.30 to 1.86. in spinal model the shorter range of 1.30 to 1.68 allows a more open scale to be used, while the long upward range of the diamond refractometer, 1.55 to 2.05, necessitates a sliding eyepiece for scanning the scale. Several refractometer to Amarican manufacture are available in the U.S.A these operate on precisely the same principle as the british

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15.REFRACTIVE INDEX AND ITS MEASUREMENT

The totally and the only partially reflected rays are projected by a lens system on to a transparent scale which is viewed through an eyepiece. the part of the scale illuminated by the totally reflected rays will be brightly lit, while the rest of the scale will be relatively in shadow. the scale is calibrated by the marks of the instrument so as to read direct in refractive indices, so that by simply observing the positions of the edge of the shadow on the scale the refractive index of the stone tested can be ascertained. 

Refractometer of the total reflection type were in use during the latter half of last century, but the first satisfactory low priced instrument for testing precious stones was devised by Dr. G. F. Herbert Smith in 1907. the more recently designed and very compact rayner refractometer figure 2.3 (a) has a truncated prism of dense glass in place of the usual. 

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14.DOUBLE REFRACTION AND DISPERSION

When a doubly refractive stone is too small or has to low a birefringence to show doubling at all easily by the straight forward lens inspections describe above, another simple but more sensitive technique may yield valuable information. this has been practised 

indipendently in the past by max bauer, G.O. Wild, G.O. crowning shield and R.K. Mitchell, and in recent years has been systematiesd into a routine process of visual optics by alan hodgkinson, who uses it with exceptional skill and success.  The method is best applied in a darkened room with a single light source, which may be either a clear electric bulb with 'C' filament or (more conveniently) a small 'slit' torch of the type produced by hanneman lapidary specialist (figure 3.2). the stone to be examined, if large or mounted with an open baking, can be held in the hand, or if small in tongs.

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There is a point here which may usefully cleared up since it causes confusion to students. what is known as the critical angle of a stone is the angle at which rays of light passing from the stone into air are refracted at 90 to a line prependicular to the surface between the two media . rays striking the inside surface of a stone at angle creater than this critical angle cannot emerge, and are totally reflected back into the stone. here the stone is the denser medium, and the higher the refractive index of the stone is the smaller is its critical angle. in the case of refractomemter the principle is exactly the same, but here the glass of the refractometer is the denser medium, and the stone is the rarer medium. thus, in this case the higher the refractive index of the stone the greater is the critical angle between it an the glass of the instrument.When a doubly refractive stone is too small or has to low a

birefringence to show doubling at all easily by the straight forward lens inspections describe above, another simple but more sensitive technique may yield valuable information. this has been practised indipendently in the past by max bauer, G.O. Wild, G.O. crowning shield and R.K. Mitchell, and in recent years has been systematiesd into a routine process of visual optics by alan hodgkinson, who uses it with exceptional skill and success.  The method is best applied in a darkened room with a single light source, which may be either a clear electric bulb with 'C' filament or (more conveniently) a small 'slit' torch of the type produced by hanneman lapidary specialist (figure 3.2). the stone to be examined, if large or mounted with an open baking, can be held in the hand, or if small in tongs.

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14.DOUBLE REFRACTION AND DISPERSION

When a doubly refractive stone is too small or has to low a birefringence to show doubling at all easily by the straight forward lens inspections describe above, another simple but more sensitive technique may yield valuable information. this has been practised indipendently in the past by max bauer, G.O. Wild, G.O. 

crowning shield and R.K. Mitchell, and in recent years has been systematiesd into a routine process of visual optics by alan hodgkinson, who uses it with exceptional skill and success.  The method is best applied in a darkened room with a single light source, which may be either a clear electric bulb with 'C' filament or (more conveniently) a small 'slit' torch of the type produced by hanneman lapidary specialist (figure 3.2). the stone to be examined,

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13.REFRACTIVE INDEX AND ITS MEASUREMENT

There is a point here which may usefully cleared up since it causes confusion to students. what is known as the critical angle of a stone is the angle at which rays of light passing from the stone into air are refracted at 90 to a line prependicular to the surface between the two media . rays striking the inside surface of a stone at angle creater than this critical angle cannot emerge, and are totally reflected back into the stone. here the stone is the denser medium, and the higher the refractive index of the stone is the smaller is its critical angle. in the case of refractomemter the principle is exactly the same, but here the glass of the refractometer is the denser medium, and the stone is the rarer medium. thus, in this case the higher the refractive index of the stone the greater is the critical angle between it an the glass of the instrument.

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By Samina Aamir

When even the most practised eye may find it difficult to distinguish between stone of difficult species but of very similar colour, simple instruments can sometimes be used to 'analyes' the colour in one way or another and make the separation simple. what we call 'white' light, i.e. light from the sun or other incandescent bodies, is composed of a mixture of all the colours of the rainbow. newton, in the year of the great fire of london (1666), was 

the first to show that sunlight has a composite nature. he analysed a narrow beam of light that passed through a chink in the shutter into his darkened room, by the simple expedient of placing a glass prism in the path of the ray. light is variously refracted by a transparent solid according to its wavelenght, the red rays, of longer wavelength, beings less deviated than the shorter, violet, waves.There is a point here which may usefully cleared up since it causes confusion to students.

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By Samina

When even the most practised eye may find it difficult to distinguish between stone of difficult species but of very similar colour, simple instruments can sometimes be used to 'analyes' the colour in one way or another and make the separation simple. what we call 'white' light, i.e. light from the sun or other incandescent bodies, is composed of a mixture of all the colours of the rainbow. newton, in the year of the great fire of london (1666), was the first to show that sunlight has a composite nature. he analysed a narrow beam of light that passed through a 
chink in the shutter into his darkened room, by the simple expedient of placing a glass prism in the path of the ray. light is variously refracted by a transparent solid according to its wavelenght, the red rays, of longer wavelength, beings less deviated than the shorter, violet, waves.There is a point here which may usefully cleared up since it causes confusion to students. what is known as the critical angle of a stone is the angle at which rays of light passing from the stone into air are refracted at 90 to a line prependicular to the surface between the two media . rays striking the inside surface of a stone at angle creater than this critical angle 

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JD Bezel larger the stone is of great importance in human life.
In particular, scientists are very interested in this stone.
The reason for this is that the metal byrlym in stone..
The world's most lightly and strongest metal metal..
The metal mixed with the radium with neutrons are produced when..
The metal melts at 50 degrees Fahrenheit is fifty.
Besides quo remains for millions of years this stone in Arabic.
This branch is called the emerald stone is thrush.
The stone tone is cold and dry.
The four types of stone are very popular.
The pink stone is margunayt.
This golden-colored stone is Golden Bezel.
This stone is the emerald color of aquamarine.

This stone comes in many colors, for example light and dark green on.
It's yellowy green color and Turquoise is a stone that has a date.
About this stone is popular is that it is a holy stone.

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By Aamir Mannan.

We went to a wedding ceremony.So we see many new rituals.First, the bride had to go home. So we asked a relative, brother of the bride's house for what are today.If this is the henna ceremony today.We asked what is the henna ceremony.We learned that the bride's henna must be placed.Sister of the groom, henna will apply.And hootenanny will be a lot.We thought let's go and see what we have.So we have to go 


with the ceremony.The bride's family concurrently arrived there was plenty of color.Pay the beat of the bride's friends were busy with wedding songs.Wedding songs were 

being sung and well-swing.We also got into the back seat.And we began to enjoy the environment.We will shortly come to bridal brides are having the sound turned way.We saw a girl wearing yellow clothes coming out veil.This story is in progress.

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His name is very beautiful and it is also very beautiful emerald mood is cold and dry.I find that many chemical constituents are.

1. Slack.
2. Chrome.
3. Aylmunya.
4. Byrlym.
5. Mygnyz.

This stone is found a few special types which are available in many countries.

1. Rehan is emerald green as grass.
2. Rehan is emerald green like flowers in Anjar،
3. Make a yellowy green emerald.
4. It is emerald green ink inclined straight.
5. Habuny white faced slope is emerald green.
6. Dhahabi is emerald green.

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By Aamir Mannan.
Today we tell you about the emerald suits for those girls and boys How they are ?  What are their  qualities ? and so on It is the feature of these girls and guys that they are well aware of the nature and temperament. and these girls and boys are successful in the medical law and engineering occupations. Moreover, they are successful in politics and religious issues also. These girls and guys because of their qualities are very popular in their friends. These Girls respects the people who are fair and straight 



in fact the girls afraid to face the realities of love their feelings and emotions could not be accomplished they watch unreal  dream they search the person who love give pleasant environment  and praise therefore they Pursuing many people.

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By Aamir Mannan.
In addition to names and also names the emerald is some of them are old, some new names. Emerald's history is very old stone man from ancient times is love. Thousands of years of human use in emerald jewelry because it is. The stones sparkle in her emerald in your reply does not contain some errors are also particularly note.Which burned like emerald level maps are like spider crack in the emerald eyes look dull not place looks not place a fog. Lines appear to be stone around the incision impaired emerald all 


emerald stones that are found in the market are cheap and are less like. Emerald helps identify a few specific things if you look real emerald cap with the ultra uaylt rays, the color does not matter.

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There are some historical facts about the famous emerald mention this will be interesting here too many characters in the stone is the emerald.Green is the best boss in the Hazrat Ali said about him in this horrible dream man do not bother to use. About Emerald Emerald is the view of Imam Moosa Raza is the solution to every problem in 


this stone is attributed to Imam Hasan from qbah. Tary opponents fear the enemy that is dominated by wearing this emerald heart tbyt relaxation of comfort and satisfaction that comes.When tied to a woman's thigh is a famous proverb in 

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  Aap ki pasnd hai khaas

                           Your Choice Great Honor For Us 

      FA manan jewelers where you can get jewelery of every kind. We design your jewelery in modern ways and our workers design this jewelry with God gifted qualities they have in this join our of jewelry making which make you look different from other which is the soul purpose of jewelry making and 

wearing. Our jewelry will make you look better in every kind of functions and will show ur real high standard.

This will make us proud we respect your choice ur choice matter alot to us. Prouu.d t.o serve yo

We went to a wedding ceremony.So we see many new rituals.First, the bride had to go home. So we asked a relative, brother of the bride's house for what are today.If this is the henna ceremony today.We asked what is the henna ceremony.We learned that the bride's henna must be placed.Sister of the groom, henna will apply.And hootenanny will be a lot.We thought let's go and see what we have.So we have to go with the ceremony.The bride's family concurrently arrived there was plenty of color.Pay the beat of the bride's friends were busy with wedding songs.Wedding songs were 


being sung and well-swing.We also got into the back seat.And we began to enjoy the environment.We will shortly come to bridal brides are having the sound turned way.We saw a girl wearing yellow clothes coming out veil.This story is in progress.

ایک شادی کی تقریب میں ہم گئے تو ہم کو بہت سی نئی رسمیں دیکھنے کو ملیں پہلے تو دلہن کے گھر جانا تھا تو ہم نے ایک رشتے دار سے پوچھا کے بھائی آج دلہن کے گھر کس لئے جارہے ہیں تو اس بتایا کے آج مہندی کی رسم ہے ہم نے پوچھا کے مہندی کی رسم کیا ہوتی ہے اس سے ہمیں پتا چلا کے دلہن مہندی لگائی جائے گی جو دولہا کی بہنیں اور بھابیاں مہندی لگائیں گی اور خوب ہلا گلا ہوگا ہم نے سوچا چلو ہم بھی چل کے دیکھتے ہیں کے کیا ہوتا ہے تو ہم بھی اس تقریب ساتھ چل پڑے جب دلہن کے گھر پہنچے تو وہاں خوب رنگ جما ہوا تھا ڈھولک کی تھاپ پے دلہن کی سہیلیاں شادی کے گیت گانے میں مصروف تھیں اور خوب زور شور سے شادی گانے گائے جارہے تھے ہم کو بھی پچھلی نشستوں میں جگہ مل گئی اور ہم بھی اس ماحول لطف اندوز ہونے لگے کچھ ہی دیر میں ہم کو دلہن کے آنے کا شور سنائی دیا کے راستہ دو دلہن آرہی ہے ہم نے دیکھا کے ایک لڑکی پیلے کپڑے پہنے گھونگھٹ نکالے چلی آرہی ہے یہ قصہ ابھی جاری ہے

We were in a wedding ceremony, we to new rules to watch was to go to the house of the bride.We have asked a relation with the brother of the bride home today who are going to.